Our collective flushes help track and respond to Covid-19 and so much more. Your body waste contains harvestable compounds that can reveal your illnesses and diseases, consumption habits, and cosmetic use. Researchers gain insights from it to better understand our behavior and consumption habits. But collecting stool and urine samples from large populations proves difficult.

我們的同花順可以幫助跟蹤和響應Covid-19等。 您的身體廢物中含有可收獲的化合物 ，可以揭示您的疾病，消費習慣和美容用途。 研究人員從中獲得見識，以便更好地了解我們的行為和消費習慣。 但是事實證明，從大量人群中收集糞便和尿液樣本非常困難。

Instead, researchers developed testing techniques to sample human waste where it all congregates — the sewer.

取而代之的是，研究人員開發了測試技術，以對所有聚集在下水道中的人類廢物進行采樣。

Until recently, wastewater surveillance was only prevalent in academic research. It is now becoming a profitable industry as companies like Biobot offer wastewater surveillance as a service.

直到最近，廢水監測僅在學術研究中盛行。 隨著像Biobot這樣的公司提供廢水監測即服務，它現在正在成為一個有利可圖的行業。

Failure to preserve body waste data privacy will cause significant emotional and economic harm. This article examines whether wastewater surveillance data is anonymous and the inherent privacy risks we must consider as this industry grows.

無法保護身體廢物數據的隱私將導致嚴重的情感和經濟傷害。 本文探討了廢水監控數據是否匿名以及隨著該行業的發展我們必須考慮的固有隱私風險。

廢水監測概述 (An Overview of Wastewater Surveillance)

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE), or wastewater surveillance, involves the extraction, detection, and subsequent analysis and interpretation of chemical and biological compounds found in fecal matter and urine. The collection sites vary from large locations like sewer treatment plants to smaller venues such as portable toilets at festivals.

基于廢水的流行病學(WBE)或廢水監測涉及糞便和尿液中化學和生物化合物的提取，檢測以及隨后的分析和解釋 。 收集地點從下水道處理廠等較大的地點到節日期間的便攜式廁所等較小的地點。

數據 (The Data)

Wastewater surveillance detects anything present in our body waste if researchers possess a tool to identify it. Wastewater surveillance allows researchers to detect a wide variety of compounds in (near) real-time today, including the following:

如果研究人員擁有識別廢物的工具，則廢水監測可以檢測到我們體內廢物中存在的任何物質。 廢水監測使研究人員能夠今天(近)實時檢測多種化合物，包括：

• Viruses, such as influenza, hepatitis A, norovirus, COVID-19

  病毒 ，例如流感，甲型肝炎，諾如病毒，COVID-19

• Pharmaceutical or illicit drugs such as anxiety and depression medications, Tamiflu, prescription opioids, fentanyl, cocaine, methamphetamine, MDMA, and marijuana

  藥物或非法藥物，例如焦慮癥和抑郁癥藥物，達菲，阿片類藥物，芬太尼，可卡因，甲基苯丙胺，搖頭丸和大麻

• Levels of antimicrobial resistance — bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites are no longer killable by drugs designed to kill them

  抗菌素耐藥性水平- 細菌，病毒，真菌和寄生蟲不再可以通過旨在殺死它們的藥物來殺死

• Chemicals found in products we use, such as UV filters, plasticizers, flame retardants, pesticides, mycotoxins, carcinogens linked to tobacco, and BPA

  我們使用的產品中發現的化學物質 ，例如紫外線過濾劑，增塑劑，阻燃劑，農藥，霉菌毒素，與煙草有關的致癌物和BPA

• Stress biomarkers that indicate the risk of a heart attack

  指示生命危險的壓力生物標志物

• Consumption habits, including caffeine, alcohol, nicotine, and nutrition

  消費習慣 ，包括咖啡因，酒精，尼古丁和營養

The WBE results are often presented alone but are more useful when combined with other data. For example, researchers have used WBE to compare pharmaceutical, illicit drug, alcohol, nicotine, and caffeine levels found in wastewater with sale, seizure, and consumption data in a study involving eight European cities.

WBE結果通常單獨顯示，但與其他數據結合使用時更有用 。 例如，在涉及八個歐洲城市的研究中，研究人員使用WBE將廢水中的藥物，非法藥物，酒精，尼古丁和咖啡因含量與銷售，緝獲和消費數據進行了比較。

數據所有者和處理器 (The Data Owners & Processors)

The local government is not always the owner of the wastewater. In the United States, the privatization of wastewater treatment facilities has been increasing over the past several decades. Private owners of treatment facilities can authorize wastewater testing. Similarly, the owner of supplied portable toilets can authorize testing, and building owners can permit wastewater collection from their sewer lines.

地方政府并不總是廢水的所有者。 在美國， 廢水處理設施的私有化在過去幾十年中一直在增加 。 處理設施的私人所有者可以授權進行廢水測試。 同樣，提供的便攜式廁所的所有者可以授權進行測試，而建筑物的所有者可以允許從其下水道收集廢水。

Depending on the purpose of the study, private companies may analyze the data (not academic researchers). The contract, if one exists, between the data owner and the processor will determine the data analysis and distribution of the results unless local privacy laws otherwise govern the data.

根據研究目的，私人公司可能會分析數據(而非學術研究人員)。 數據所有者和處理者之間的合同(如果存在)將確定數據分析和結果分配，除非當地隱私法律另有規定。

數據如何使用 (How the Data Is Used)

Extensive wastewater surveillance benefits exist. As we are currently experiencing, wastewater monitoring for infection viruses and diseases, like COVID-19, helps communities respond to and evaluate containment efforts. Instances of opioid oversubscriptions are identifiable by monitoring for discrepancies between the amount prescribed and used. Monitoring the city’s overall physical health helps determine the need and effectiveness of health awareness programs. The benefits are nearly limitless.

存在廣泛的廢水監測益處 。 正如我們目前所經歷的那樣，對感染病毒和疾病(如COVID-19)進行廢水監測可幫助社區做出響應并評估收容措施。 阿片類藥物超額??訂購的情況可以通過監測處方量和使用量之間的差異來識別。 監測城市的整體身體健康狀況有助于確定健康意識計劃的需求和有效性。 好處幾乎是無限的。

Controversial uses of wastewater surveillance data also exist. In China, using wastewater monitoring, law enforcement arrested an illegal drug manufacturer. China is advancing monitoring techniques to identify and arrest unlawful drug users. This example highlights that wastewater surveillance data is not always anonymous.

廢水監測數據的使用也存在爭議。 在中國 ，執法部門通過廢水監測逮捕了一家非法藥物生產商。 中國正在發展監測技術，以識別和逮捕非法吸毒者。 該示例強調了廢水監控數據并不總是匿名的。

廢水數據是匿名的嗎？ (Is Wastewater Data Anonymous?)

We are quick to label aggregate data as anonymous when it might be pseudonymous data, especially in the Data Era. Data is anonymous if (1) it does not relate to an identifiable person, and (2) cannot be combined with other data to re-identify a person.

當聚合數據可能是匿名數據時，我們會Swift將其標記為匿名數據，尤其是在數據時代。 如果(1)數據與可識別身份無關， 并且 (2)無法與其他數據合并以重新識別人員，則該數據為匿名數據。

WBE studies using small samples in specific locations, such as music festivals, fitness centers, prisons, hospitals, and colleges, have been conducted. It is reasonable to assume identifiable records (e.g., employee and inmate list, fitness center access logs) exists for these studies. The researchers may not know who the individuals are. But someone does, and they could link the study results to potentially re-identify the individuals.

已在特定地點 (例如音樂節，健身中心，監獄，醫院和學院) 使用少量樣本進行了 WBE研究。 假定存在用于這些研究的可識別記錄(例如，員工和囚犯名單，健身中心訪問日志)是合理的。 研究人員可能不知道這些人是誰。 但是有人這樣做，他們可以將研究結果聯系起來，從而有可能重新識別個人。

Anonymity remains questionable even with larger samples. Europe’s ethical guidelines recommend only publishing results for larger sample sizes, such as 100,000 people. Is that sample size large to prevent re-identification in the Big Data Era?

即使使用更大的樣本，匿名性仍然值得懷疑。 歐洲的道德準則建議僅發布較大樣本量(例如100,000人)的結果。 樣本量是否很大，以防止在大數據時代重新識別？

Organizations can use (near) real-time wastewater surveillance to measure specific times when the compound is more prevalent than others throughout the day. Predicting the study participants is likely by combining the study results with other datasets, such as demographic data related to that specific compound (e.g., characteristics of heroin users), mobile location data, and smart home data.

當化合物在一天內比其他化合物更普遍時，組織可以使用(接近)實時廢水監測來測量特定時間。 通過將研究結果與其他數據集(例如與該特定化合物有關的人口統計數據(例如，海洛因使用者的特征)，移動位置數據和智能家居數據)相結合，可以預測研究參與者。

It’s possible to conduct wastewater surveillance anonymously. But the advancements in re-identification practices challenge data anonymization. We must critically examine privacy risks as we advance this industry.

可以匿名進行廢水監測。 但是，重新識別實踐的進步挑戰了數據匿名化。 隨著行業的發展，我們必須認真審查隱私風險。

廢水監控的隱私注意事項 (Privacy Considerations for Wastewater Surveillance)

WBE results reveal intimate details about people. Organizations and data scientists within this space hold an ethical responsibility to limit harm. Failure to preserve the anonymity will result in emotional, physical, and economic harm.

WBE的結果揭示了人們的親密細節。 在這個空間內的組織和數據科學家負有道德責任以限制損害。 無法保留匿名將導致情感，身體和經濟傷害。

識別隱私風險 (Identify Privacy Risks)

A privacy assessment is necessary before each study to identify and mitigate privacy risks to individuals. The evaluation should identify risks by asking:

在每次研究之前，必須進行隱私評估，以識別和減輕個人的隱私風險。 評估應通過詢問以下內容來識別風險：

What emotional, physical, and economic harms may result if the data identifies an individual, vulnerable group, or community?

如果數據確定了個人，弱勢群體或社區，可能會造成什么情感，身體和經濟傷害？

The compound identified determines the privacy risks. Sunscreen usage does not carry the stigma or consequences of using heroin, for instance. Individuals may experience embarrassment, loss of dignity, and economic hardship if the study reveals their heroin use. A community may experience financial harm if research shows high drug usage within the community if people opt not to travel or move there.

確定的化合物確定了隱私風險。 例如，防曬霜的使用不會帶有使用海洛因的污名或后果。 如果研究表明他們使用海洛因，則個人可能會感到尷尬，尊嚴喪失和經濟困難。 如果研究表明如果人們選擇不去那里旅行或移動，那么社區可能會遭受經濟傷害。

The data subjects and recipients of the data impact the risks. For example, sharing prisoner drug usage results with the prison’s leadership may cause increase prisoner emotional stress and physical harm, especially if the faculty implement stricter policies and increases body and prison cell searches.

數據的主體和數據接收者會影響風險。 例如，與監獄領導分享囚犯使用毒品的結果可能會導致囚犯情緒壓力和身體傷害增加，特別是如果教師實施更嚴格的政策并增加對尸體和監獄牢房的搜索。

Identifying the potential harms of each WBE study will guide the study’s design, including the appropriate population, sample size, and communication plan.

確定每個WBE研究的潛在危害將指導研究的設計，包括適當的人群，樣本量和溝通計劃。

基于風險的隱私控制 (Risk-Based Privacy Controls)

Privacy controls in alignment with the risks identified are required. The controls range from de-identification techniques to data security controls and may require obtaining consent from the individuals.

需要與發現的風險保持一致的隱私控制。 這些控制范圍從取消標識技術到數據安全控制，可能需要征得個人的同意。

When the study introduces significant harm to individuals, the researchers must carefully evaluate the controls in place to maintain the confidentiality of the data. Techniques such as combining the data with other samples, increasing the sample size, and removing data such as specific time or location may be necessary. How other data companies may use the aggregate research results should also be considered. For instance, could a smart-home company combine its user data with the publicly available study results and identify individuals? If so, then the sample location may need to be redacted or merged with another geographical area to preserve anonymity. Advanced de-identification techniques, such as differential privacy synthetic data, may increase confidence in the future.

當研究對個人造成重大傷害時，研究人員必須仔細評估適當的控制措施，以維護數據的機密性。 可能需要諸如將數據與其他樣本合并，增加樣本大小以及刪除數據(例如特定時間或位置)之類的技術。 還應考慮其他數據公司如何使用匯總研究結果。 例如，一家智能家居公司是否可以將其用戶數據與可公開獲得的研究結果相結合并識別個人？ 如果是這樣，則可能需要對樣本位置進行編輯或與另一個地理區域合并以保留匿名性。 先進的身份識別技術(例如差分隱私綜合數據 )可能會增加對未來的信心。

Unless the vital interests of the community depend on the testing (e.g., people will die without it), a high-risk study should not be conducted without informed consent from the individuals.

除非社區的切身利益取決于測試(例如，如果沒有測試，人們就會喪命)，那么未經個人知情同意，不得進行高風險研究。

數據所有者和處理器責任制 (Data Owners & Processors Accountability)

Wastewater data is valuable. The data broker industry is worth $200 billion. Imagine how profitable it would be to send personalized ads based on the health data gleaned from consumers’ body waste. Entities will sell wastewater data without legal restrictions. It would be na?ve of us to assume otherwise. We need privacy law reform in the United States, and other lacking countries, to hold the wastewater owners and processors, including researchers, responsible for protecting our privacy.

廢水數據很有價值。 數據經紀行業的產值達2000億美元 。 想象一下，根據從消費者體內廢物中收集的健康數據發送個性化廣告將有多大收益。 實體將無法律限制地出售廢水數據。 否則我們會很天真。 我們需要在美國和其他缺少國家/地區進行隱私法改革，以使廢水所有者和處理人員(包括研究人員)對保護我們的隱私負責。

The law must carefully examine the anonymity of the data, including whether individuals may be re-identified by a third party after the data is shared or sold. The law needs to protect against data brokers linking anonymous data with other data sources to re-identify individuals after the sale. Similarly, the law needs to protect against data brokers re-identifying individuals by combining anonymous public data (e.g., research data) with their other data sources.

法律必須仔細檢查數據的匿名性，包括在共享或出售數據后是否可以由第三方重新識別個人。 法律需要防止數據經紀人將匿名數據與其他數據源鏈接在一起，以在出售后重新識別個人。 同樣，法律需要通過將匿名公共數據(例如研究數據)與其其他數據源結合起來，防止數據經紀人重新識別個人身份。

With or without a law, wastewater surveillance organizations (and data scientists and researchers) hold an ethical responsibility to the human subjects involved. Failure to critically examine the privacy risks present throughout the data lifecycle may significantly harm individuals. You must hold yourself and each other accountable to protect us.

無論有沒有法律，廢水監測組織(以及數據科學家和研究人員)對所涉及的人類受試者負有道德責任。 無法嚴格檢查整個數據生命周期中存在的隱私風險可能會嚴重傷害個人。 您必須對自己和彼此負責，以保護我們。

We stand to benefit significantly from wastewater-based epidemiology research. These insights allow us to detect and control infectious diseases, improve drug and alcohol abuse prevention and treatment programs, and improve our overall health. Wastewater surveillance will undoubtedly save lives.

我們將從基于廢水的流行病學研究中受益匪淺。 這些見解使我們能夠發現和控制傳染病，改善藥物和酒精濫用的預防和治療計劃，并改善我們的整體健康狀況。 廢水監測無疑將挽救生命。

But we must consider the risks introduced to society by such a powerful and invasive innovation.

但是，我們必須考慮這種強大的侵入性創新給社會帶來的風險。

Citizens, academics, policymakers, and data scientists must question the wastewater surveillance ethical guidelines as this industry grows. Realizing its benefits and not the risks requires our voices to ensure ethical guidelines are developed and followed.

隨著該行業的發展，市民，學者，政策制定者和數據科學家必須質疑廢水監測的道德準則。 要實現其收益而不是風險，需要我們的聲音確保制定并遵守道德準則。